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Yaima Yate, J. ., & Díaz Rivera, E. . (2022). Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Murrell & Barker, 2003 (Ixodida: Ixodidae) evaluation of the effectiveness of acaricides on populations from Tolima middle. Boletín Científico. Centro De Museos, 26(1), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.17151/bccm.2022.26.1.2
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Authors
Jeison Yaima Yate
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Edgar Díaz Rivera
Abstract
Objectives: To determine the effectiveness of acaricides in field populations of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus collected in cattle farms in the municipalities of Ibagué, Espinal and Cajamarca, department of Tolima. Methodology: A total of 1200 teleogines of R. microplus were collected in 12 farms and subjected to a modified adult immersion test (AIT) in order to evaluate four commonly used acaricides in the region: cypermethrin 15%, amitraz 20.8 %, 84% ethion and 1% ivermectin. Parameters such as reproductive efficiency and hatching percentage were calculated, with which the efficacy of each acaricide was determined. Results: It was found that in 91.66% of the farms evaluated the populations of R. microplus were resistant to cypermethrin, 91.66% to amitraz, 75% to ethion and 66.66% to ivermectin, showing loss of efficacy of these chemicals. Conclusion: The high dispersion of resistance to the acaricides frequently used in the field for the control of populations of R. microplus in three municipalities of Tolima was demonstrated, denoting the need to establish new control strategies that allow limiting infestations of the common cattle tick.
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References
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Araque, A. (2014). Resistencia a acaricidas en Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus de algunas explotaciones ganaderas de Colombia. Rev. U.D.C.A Act. & Div. Cient., 17, 161-170.
Baffi, M. R. (2007). Identification of point mutations in a putative carboxylesterase and their association with acaricide resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae). Vet Parasitol, 148, 301-309.
Bendjeddou, M. L. (2017). Bat ectoparasites (Nycteribiidae, Streblidae, Siphonaptera, Heteroptera, Mesostigmata, Argasidae, and Ixodidae) from Algeria. Journal of Vector Ecology, 42, 13-23.
Busch, J. e. (2014). Widespread movement of invasive cattle fever ticks (Rhipicephalus microplus) in southern Texas leads to shared local infestations on cattle and deer. Parasites & Vectors, 7, 1-16.
Calligaris, I., De Oliveira, P., Roma, G. & Bechara, G. M. (2013). Action of the insect growth regulator fluazuron, the active ingredient of the acaricide Acatak, in Rhipicephalus sanguineus nymphs (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidade). Microscopy Research and Technique, 76, 1177-1185.
Corley, S. (2013). Mutation in the RmβAOR gene is associated with amitraz resistance in the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 110, 16772-16777.
Correa, R., Lopes, W., Teixeira, W., Cruz, B., Gomes, L., Fellipelli, G. & Da Costa, A. (2015). A comparison of three different methodologies for evaluating Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus susceptibility to topical spray compounds. Veterinary Parasitology, 207, 115-124.
Cruz, B., Teixeira, W., Maciel, W. F., Favero, F., Cruz, A., Buzulini, S. C. & Da Costa, A. (2014). Effects of fluazuron (2.5 mg/kg) and a combination of fluazuron (3.0 mg/kg) + abamectin (0.5 mg/kg) on the reproductive parameters of a field population of Rhipicepalus (Boophilus) microplus on experimentally infested cattle. Research in Veterinary Science, 97, 80-84.
De Oliveira, P., Calligaris, I., Roma, G., Bechara, G., Pizano, M. & Mathias, M. (2012). Potential of the insect growth regulator, fluazuron, in the control of Rhipicephalus sanguineus nymphs (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae): determination of the LD95 and D50. Experimental Parasitology, 131, 35-39.
Díaz, E. (2012). Mecanismos moleculares y bioquímicos de resistencia a acaricidas en la garrapata común de los bovinos Rhipicephalus microplus. Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 5, 72-81.
Díaz, E. (2016). Evaluación in vitro de resistencia a acaricidas en Rhipicephalus microplus. Estudio de caso en el norte del Tolima, Colombia. Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 9, 37-43.
Díaz, E. & Vallejo, G. (2013). Identificación de un polimorfismo del gen Est9 relacionado con resistencia a piretroides en Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. Revista MVZ Córdoba, 18, 3708-3714.
Díaz-Rivera, E. & Vallejo, G. (2014). Determinación de una mutación puntual en el gen Est9 de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus resistente a organofosforados. Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 7, 14-20.
Domingues, L., Alves, B., Passos, A., Pinto, A., Medeiros, A., L, C L. (2012). Survey of pyretroid and organophosphate resistance in Brazilian field populations of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus: Detection of C190A mutation in domain II of the paratype sodium channel gene. Veterinary Parasitology, 189, 327-332.
Drummond, R., Ernst, S., Trevino, J., Gladney, W. & Grsham, O. (1973). Boophilus annulatus and Boophilus microplus: laboratory tests of insecticides. J. Econ. Entomol, 66, 130-133.
Faza, A., Pinto, I., Fonseca, I., Antunes, G., Monteiro, C., Daemon, E., M.C.D, P. (2013). A new approach to characterization of the resistance of populations of Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) to organophosphate and pyrethroid in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Experimental Parasitology, 134, 519-523.
Fernandez-Salas, A., Rodriguez-Vivas, R. & Alonso-Díaz, M. (2012). First report of a Rhipicephalus microplus tick population multi-resistant to acaricides and ivermectin in the Mexican tropics. Vet. Parasitol, 191, 338-342.
Food Agriculture Organization - FAO. (2004). Resistance Management and Integrated Parasite Control in Ruminants - Guidelines, Module 1 - Ticks: Acaricide Resistance: Diagnosis, Management and Prevention. Food and Agriculture Organization, Animal Production and Health División, Rome, 1-53.
Furlong, J. (2002). Teste do biocarrapaticidograma (Imersäo de teleoginas). III Curso Internacional Progresos no Diagnostico das Parasitoses dos Animais do Producto. Programa de treinamiento para terceiros países. Salvador, Brasil.
Gomes, A., Koller, W. & Barros, A. (2011). Susceptibilidade de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus acarrapaticidas em Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil. Ciencia Rural, 41, 1447-1452.
Gomes, L., Lopes, W., Cruz, B., Teixeira, W., Fellipelli, G., Maciel, W. & Da Costa, A. (2015). Acaricidal effects of fluazuron (2.5 mg/kg) and a combination of fluazuron (1.6 mg/kg) + ivermectin (0.63 mg/kg), administered at different routes, against Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus paraziting cattle. Experimental Parasitology, 153, 22-28.
ICA. (31 de enero de 2018). Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario. Área de protección animal. Obtenido de Censo Pecuario: https://www.ica.gov.co/areas/pecuaria/servicios/epidemiologia-veterinaria/censos-2016/censo-2018
Lopes, W., Teixeira, W., De Matos, L. F., Cruz, B., Maciel, W., Buzulini, C. & Da Costa, A. (2013). Effects of macrocyclic lactones on the reproductive parameters of engorged Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus females detached from experimentally infested cattle. Experimental Parasitology, 7, 72-78.
Lopez-Arias, A., Villar-Argaiz, D., Chaparro-Gutierrez, J., Miller, R., & De León, A. (2015). Reduced efficacy of commercial Acaricides against Populations of Resistant Cattle Tick Rhipicephalus microplus from Two Municipalities of Antioquia, Colombia. Environmental Health Insights, 19, 71-80.
Lovis, L. R. (2013). Determination of acaricide resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) field populations of Argentina, South Africa, and Australia with the larval tarsal test. Med. Entomol, 2, 326-335.
Maciel, W., Lopes, W., Cruz, B., Gomes, L., Teixeira, W., Buzzilini, C. & Da Costa, A. (2015). Ten years later: Evaluation of the effectiveness of 12.5% amitraz against a field population of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus using field studies, artificial infestation (Stall tests) and adult immersion tests. Veterinary Parasitology, 214, 233-241.
Miller, R. A. (2013). First report of fipronil resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus of Mexico. Vet. Parasitol, 191, 91-101.
Murrell, A. & Barker, S. (2003). Synonymy of Boophilus Curtice, 1891 with Rhipicephalus Koch, 1844 (Acari:Ixodidae). Systematic Parasitology, 56, 169-172.
Neis, V., Luana, P., De Souza, A., Bellato, V., Sartor, A., Nunes, O. & Cardoso, M. (2012). Resistance to cypermethrin and amitraz in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus on the Santa Catarina Plateau, Brazil. Rev. Bras. Parasitol., 21, 133-136.
Pohl, P., Klafke, G., J.J, R., Martins, J., & Da Silva, V. M. (2012). ABC transporters as a multidrug detoxification mechanism in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. Parasitol. Res., 51, 2345-2351.
Polanco-Echeverry, D. & Rios-Osorio, L. (2016). Aspectos biológicos y ecológicos de las garrapatas duras. Corpoica Cienc Tecnol Agropecuaria, 17, 81-95.
Puerta, J., Chaparro, J., López-Arias, A., Arroyave, S. & Villar, D. (2015). Pérdida de eficacia in vitro de acaricidas comerciales tópicos en Rhipicephalus microplus (Ixodida: Ixodidae) de granjas de Antioquia, Colombia. J Med Entomo, 52, 1309-1314.
Raynal, J. B. (2013). Acaricides efficiency on Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus from Bahia state North-Central region. Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet, 1, 71-77.
Reck, J. K. (2014). First report of fluazuron resistance in Rhipicephalus microplus: A field tick population resistant to six classes of acaricides. Veterinary Parasitology, 201, 128-136.
Rivera-Páez, F. L.-V.-L.-M. (2018). Contributions to the knowledge of hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in Colombia. Ticks and Tickborne Diseases, 9, 57-66.
Rodriguez-Pacheco, J. P.-M.-C. (2017). Resistencia in vitro de la garrapata Rhipicephalus microplus a organofosforados, piretroides y amitraz en el departamento de Boyacá, colombia. Rev. Fac. Cs. Vet, 58, 17-23.
Rodriguez-Vivas, R., Rosado, A., Basto, E. & García, V. (2006). Manual técnico para el control de garrapatas en el ganado bovino. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, 1-28.
Rosario-Cruz, R., Almazan, C., Miller, R., Dominguez-García, D., Hernandez-Ortíz, R. & De La Fuente, J. (2009). Genetic baiss and impact of tick acaricide resistance. Front Biosci, 14, 2657-2665.
Santana, B., Ramos, R., Santana, M., Alves, L. & Carvalho, G. (2013). Susceptibility of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) to pyrethroids and their in Pernambuco, Brazil. Revista Brasilera de Parasitología Veterinaria, 22, 276-280.
Santos, T., Klafke, G., Pappen, F., Nizolil, L., Bieyermer, P. & Farias, N. (2013). Comparison of the three larval bioassays to evaluate susceptibility of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus to amitraz. Revista Brasilera de Parasitología Veterinaria, 22, 495-501.
Shyma, K., Gupta, J., Singh, V. & Patel, K. (2015). In Vitro Detection of Acaricidal Resistance Status of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus against Commercial Preparation of Deltamethrin, Flumethrin, and Fipronil from North Gujarat, India. Journal of Parasitology Research, 2015, 1-8.
Sociedad Geográfica de Colombia. (2015). Escuela Nacional de Geografía. http://www.sogeocol.edu.co/tolima.htm
USDA. (1976). Ticks of veterinary importance. Animal and plant health inspection service, Agriculture handbook No. 485. Washington D.C.: USDA.
Villar, D., Gutierrez, J., Piedrahita, D., Rodriguez-Durán, A., Cortés-Vecino, J., Góngora-Orjuela, A. & Chaparro-Gutierrez, J. (2016). Resistencia in vitro a acaricidas tópicos de poblaciones de garrapatas Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus provenientes de cuatro departamentos de Colombia. Revista CES, 11, 58-70.
Araque, A. (2014). Resistencia a acaricidas en Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus de algunas explotaciones ganaderas de Colombia. Rev. U.D.C.A Act. & Div. Cient., 17, 161-170.
Baffi, M. R. (2007). Identification of point mutations in a putative carboxylesterase and their association with acaricide resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae). Vet Parasitol, 148, 301-309.
Bendjeddou, M. L. (2017). Bat ectoparasites (Nycteribiidae, Streblidae, Siphonaptera, Heteroptera, Mesostigmata, Argasidae, and Ixodidae) from Algeria. Journal of Vector Ecology, 42, 13-23.
Busch, J. e. (2014). Widespread movement of invasive cattle fever ticks (Rhipicephalus microplus) in southern Texas leads to shared local infestations on cattle and deer. Parasites & Vectors, 7, 1-16.
Calligaris, I., De Oliveira, P., Roma, G. & Bechara, G. M. (2013). Action of the insect growth regulator fluazuron, the active ingredient of the acaricide Acatak, in Rhipicephalus sanguineus nymphs (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidade). Microscopy Research and Technique, 76, 1177-1185.
Corley, S. (2013). Mutation in the RmβAOR gene is associated with amitraz resistance in the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 110, 16772-16777.
Correa, R., Lopes, W., Teixeira, W., Cruz, B., Gomes, L., Fellipelli, G. & Da Costa, A. (2015). A comparison of three different methodologies for evaluating Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus susceptibility to topical spray compounds. Veterinary Parasitology, 207, 115-124.
Cruz, B., Teixeira, W., Maciel, W. F., Favero, F., Cruz, A., Buzulini, S. C. & Da Costa, A. (2014). Effects of fluazuron (2.5 mg/kg) and a combination of fluazuron (3.0 mg/kg) + abamectin (0.5 mg/kg) on the reproductive parameters of a field population of Rhipicepalus (Boophilus) microplus on experimentally infested cattle. Research in Veterinary Science, 97, 80-84.
De Oliveira, P., Calligaris, I., Roma, G., Bechara, G., Pizano, M. & Mathias, M. (2012). Potential of the insect growth regulator, fluazuron, in the control of Rhipicephalus sanguineus nymphs (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae): determination of the LD95 and D50. Experimental Parasitology, 131, 35-39.
Díaz, E. (2012). Mecanismos moleculares y bioquímicos de resistencia a acaricidas en la garrapata común de los bovinos Rhipicephalus microplus. Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 5, 72-81.
Díaz, E. (2016). Evaluación in vitro de resistencia a acaricidas en Rhipicephalus microplus. Estudio de caso en el norte del Tolima, Colombia. Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 9, 37-43.
Díaz, E. & Vallejo, G. (2013). Identificación de un polimorfismo del gen Est9 relacionado con resistencia a piretroides en Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. Revista MVZ Córdoba, 18, 3708-3714.
Díaz-Rivera, E. & Vallejo, G. (2014). Determinación de una mutación puntual en el gen Est9 de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus resistente a organofosforados. Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 7, 14-20.
Domingues, L., Alves, B., Passos, A., Pinto, A., Medeiros, A., L, C L. (2012). Survey of pyretroid and organophosphate resistance in Brazilian field populations of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus: Detection of C190A mutation in domain II of the paratype sodium channel gene. Veterinary Parasitology, 189, 327-332.
Drummond, R., Ernst, S., Trevino, J., Gladney, W. & Grsham, O. (1973). Boophilus annulatus and Boophilus microplus: laboratory tests of insecticides. J. Econ. Entomol, 66, 130-133.
Faza, A., Pinto, I., Fonseca, I., Antunes, G., Monteiro, C., Daemon, E., M.C.D, P. (2013). A new approach to characterization of the resistance of populations of Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) to organophosphate and pyrethroid in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Experimental Parasitology, 134, 519-523.
Fernandez-Salas, A., Rodriguez-Vivas, R. & Alonso-Díaz, M. (2012). First report of a Rhipicephalus microplus tick population multi-resistant to acaricides and ivermectin in the Mexican tropics. Vet. Parasitol, 191, 338-342.
Food Agriculture Organization - FAO. (2004). Resistance Management and Integrated Parasite Control in Ruminants - Guidelines, Module 1 - Ticks: Acaricide Resistance: Diagnosis, Management and Prevention. Food and Agriculture Organization, Animal Production and Health División, Rome, 1-53.
Furlong, J. (2002). Teste do biocarrapaticidograma (Imersäo de teleoginas). III Curso Internacional Progresos no Diagnostico das Parasitoses dos Animais do Producto. Programa de treinamiento para terceiros países. Salvador, Brasil.
Gomes, A., Koller, W. & Barros, A. (2011). Susceptibilidade de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus acarrapaticidas em Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil. Ciencia Rural, 41, 1447-1452.
Gomes, L., Lopes, W., Cruz, B., Teixeira, W., Fellipelli, G., Maciel, W. & Da Costa, A. (2015). Acaricidal effects of fluazuron (2.5 mg/kg) and a combination of fluazuron (1.6 mg/kg) + ivermectin (0.63 mg/kg), administered at different routes, against Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus paraziting cattle. Experimental Parasitology, 153, 22-28.
ICA. (31 de enero de 2018). Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario. Área de protección animal. Obtenido de Censo Pecuario: https://www.ica.gov.co/areas/pecuaria/servicios/epidemiologia-veterinaria/censos-2016/censo-2018
Lopes, W., Teixeira, W., De Matos, L. F., Cruz, B., Maciel, W., Buzulini, C. & Da Costa, A. (2013). Effects of macrocyclic lactones on the reproductive parameters of engorged Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus females detached from experimentally infested cattle. Experimental Parasitology, 7, 72-78.
Lopez-Arias, A., Villar-Argaiz, D., Chaparro-Gutierrez, J., Miller, R., & De León, A. (2015). Reduced efficacy of commercial Acaricides against Populations of Resistant Cattle Tick Rhipicephalus microplus from Two Municipalities of Antioquia, Colombia. Environmental Health Insights, 19, 71-80.
Lovis, L. R. (2013). Determination of acaricide resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) field populations of Argentina, South Africa, and Australia with the larval tarsal test. Med. Entomol, 2, 326-335.
Maciel, W., Lopes, W., Cruz, B., Gomes, L., Teixeira, W., Buzzilini, C. & Da Costa, A. (2015). Ten years later: Evaluation of the effectiveness of 12.5% amitraz against a field population of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus using field studies, artificial infestation (Stall tests) and adult immersion tests. Veterinary Parasitology, 214, 233-241.
Miller, R. A. (2013). First report of fipronil resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus of Mexico. Vet. Parasitol, 191, 91-101.
Murrell, A. & Barker, S. (2003). Synonymy of Boophilus Curtice, 1891 with Rhipicephalus Koch, 1844 (Acari:Ixodidae). Systematic Parasitology, 56, 169-172.
Neis, V., Luana, P., De Souza, A., Bellato, V., Sartor, A., Nunes, O. & Cardoso, M. (2012). Resistance to cypermethrin and amitraz in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus on the Santa Catarina Plateau, Brazil. Rev. Bras. Parasitol., 21, 133-136.
Pohl, P., Klafke, G., J.J, R., Martins, J., & Da Silva, V. M. (2012). ABC transporters as a multidrug detoxification mechanism in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. Parasitol. Res., 51, 2345-2351.
Polanco-Echeverry, D. & Rios-Osorio, L. (2016). Aspectos biológicos y ecológicos de las garrapatas duras. Corpoica Cienc Tecnol Agropecuaria, 17, 81-95.
Puerta, J., Chaparro, J., López-Arias, A., Arroyave, S. & Villar, D. (2015). Pérdida de eficacia in vitro de acaricidas comerciales tópicos en Rhipicephalus microplus (Ixodida: Ixodidae) de granjas de Antioquia, Colombia. J Med Entomo, 52, 1309-1314.
Raynal, J. B. (2013). Acaricides efficiency on Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus from Bahia state North-Central region. Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet, 1, 71-77.
Reck, J. K. (2014). First report of fluazuron resistance in Rhipicephalus microplus: A field tick population resistant to six classes of acaricides. Veterinary Parasitology, 201, 128-136.
Rivera-Páez, F. L.-V.-L.-M. (2018). Contributions to the knowledge of hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in Colombia. Ticks and Tickborne Diseases, 9, 57-66.
Rodriguez-Pacheco, J. P.-M.-C. (2017). Resistencia in vitro de la garrapata Rhipicephalus microplus a organofosforados, piretroides y amitraz en el departamento de Boyacá, colombia. Rev. Fac. Cs. Vet, 58, 17-23.
Rodriguez-Vivas, R., Rosado, A., Basto, E. & García, V. (2006). Manual técnico para el control de garrapatas en el ganado bovino. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, 1-28.
Rosario-Cruz, R., Almazan, C., Miller, R., Dominguez-García, D., Hernandez-Ortíz, R. & De La Fuente, J. (2009). Genetic baiss and impact of tick acaricide resistance. Front Biosci, 14, 2657-2665.
Santana, B., Ramos, R., Santana, M., Alves, L. & Carvalho, G. (2013). Susceptibility of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) to pyrethroids and their in Pernambuco, Brazil. Revista Brasilera de Parasitología Veterinaria, 22, 276-280.
Santos, T., Klafke, G., Pappen, F., Nizolil, L., Bieyermer, P. & Farias, N. (2013). Comparison of the three larval bioassays to evaluate susceptibility of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus to amitraz. Revista Brasilera de Parasitología Veterinaria, 22, 495-501.
Shyma, K., Gupta, J., Singh, V. & Patel, K. (2015). In Vitro Detection of Acaricidal Resistance Status of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus against Commercial Preparation of Deltamethrin, Flumethrin, and Fipronil from North Gujarat, India. Journal of Parasitology Research, 2015, 1-8.
Sociedad Geográfica de Colombia. (2015). Escuela Nacional de Geografía. http://www.sogeocol.edu.co/tolima.htm
USDA. (1976). Ticks of veterinary importance. Animal and plant health inspection service, Agriculture handbook No. 485. Washington D.C.: USDA.
Villar, D., Gutierrez, J., Piedrahita, D., Rodriguez-Durán, A., Cortés-Vecino, J., Góngora-Orjuela, A. & Chaparro-Gutierrez, J. (2016). Resistencia in vitro a acaricidas tópicos de poblaciones de garrapatas Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus provenientes de cuatro departamentos de Colombia. Revista CES, 11, 58-70.
